Introduction

The setting provides the backdrop ¹ of the story and therefore it very important that the author establishes ² an interesting and believable setting in order to draw the reader in. In an analysis of the setting, a number of things can be examined.

Time

Time can be a diverse ³ matter. The fairytale genre utilises ⁴ an unspecific time frame through phrases such as once upon a time to establish a magical setting, whereas other genres seek to employ ⁵ realism by specifying the year and day, perhaps even hour or second.

Furthermore, the use of symbolism related to the concept of time might be of great importance to the meaning of a text. Night and day or seasons, such as spring or winter, indicate time, but can also be perceived as symbols of youth, death, beauty, growth and so on. A Song of Ice and Fire (1996-), provides an example of this through the catchphrase ⁶, winter is coming. The phrase does not only suggest that winter is approaching, but so are the series' all-destroying antagonists , The White Walkers.

Place

The notion ⁷ of place in a text might be just as definable or indefinable as the notion of time. An example of a fairly specific, physical setting can be found in F. Scott Fitzgerald 's The Great Gatsby (1925) which takes place on Long Island, New York. In contrast, some authors make use of more metaphorical ⁸ settings. An example of this is Virginia Woolf 's short story The Mark On The Wall (1917), whose most interesting setting appears as thoughts in the narrator's mind. It often makes more sense to speak of the mood or atmosphere of a text, rather than a metaphorical or mental setting.

Environment

The environment ⁹ of a setting, usually helps to explain the characters. By understanding the environment in which the text takes place, it might be easier to understand why a certain character acts or feels the way that he or she does. Often, the environment of a setting portrays a certain social class, for instance Charles Dickens 's Oliver Twist (1845) that portrays the hardships of the working classes, as opposed to the more prosperous ¹⁰ upper classes in Victorian London.

Mood & atmosphere

A-level students are often required to focus on abstract ¹¹ concepts, such as the mood ¹² or the atmosphere ¹³ of a text. Although, these elements can also be examined through e.g. the attitudes or thoughts of the characters, they are often closely tied to the creation of the setting. Mood and atmosphere serve the purpose of trying to emotionally affect and encourage ¹⁴ the reader to channel a certain mood while reading the text. Adjectives and adverbs , in particular, play a great role in affecting the reader and establishing these emotions. In Harper Lee 's To Kill a Mockingbird (1960) a certain mood and atmosphere of boredom and nothingness is created in relation to the fictional Maycomb County, Alabama.

Introduction

One of the first things that pops into our heads when thinking of a work of fiction, is the characters. Well-constructed characters are capable ¹ of creating an emotional ² bond between the reader and the character. It sparks ³ identifcation, but also serves the purpose of driving the plot forward. There are obvious reasons as to why a character such as Hermione Granger is more likeable than Draco Malfoy , but both characters are explicitly ⁴ and carefully characterised. Characterisation ⁵ is one of the strongest assets ⁶ that a writer possesses in terms of engaging the reader in the text, and therefore also one of the most interesting in terms of analysis.

External & internal characterisation

External ⁷ characterisation refers to the aspects of a character that are visible from the outside. Examples of this could be appearance, age, gender etc. internal ⁸ characterisation, on the other hand, examines the things that cannot be seen on the surface ⁹ of a character. Therefore, things such as intelligence, emotions, mood and mental aspects are of great importance when carrying out an internal characterisation.

Direct & indirect characterisation

Besides speaking about the inner and outer aspects of a character, it is also interesting to examine how the portrayal ¹⁰ of the character is executed ¹¹. Generally speaking, two terms exist, direct characterisation and indirect characterisation.

As seen in the excerpt ¹² above, the reader is introduced to Julia. The reader does not have to guess her age or intelligence based on dialogues and actions, but is instead directly informed by the narrator.

One could argue that a lot of information is directly presented in the excerpt above, but it is still presented through the words of the characters and not directly by the narrator. Well-constructed characters are usually portrayed and developed ¹³ through a combination of direct and indirect characterisation. Direct characterisation may have the advantage of precision, but indirect characterisation encourages ¹⁴ the reader to draw upon his or her imagination ¹⁵ and interpretation ¹⁶.

Flat, round, static or dynamic

In analysing the characters of a text, the concepts of flat and round characters might also be useful. The term flat character refers to a two-dimensional ¹⁷ character that does not contain ¹⁸ a lot of depth ¹⁹, whereas the term round character refers to a more complex, three-dimensional ²⁰ character with more information attached ²¹. As a rule of thumb, most protagonists and important characters are round whereas more insignificant ²² characters are usually flat. Closely related to these terms, is the notion ²³ of static and dynamic characters. A static character is a character that does not change or evolve ²⁴ throughout the course of the text, but instead stays pretty much the same all the way through, as is the case with most antagonists . A dynamic character, on the other hand, refers to a character, typically the protagonist, that undergoes a transformation or process of some sort.

Introduction

Who tells the story? The question sometimes produce ¹ a quick and easy answer, whereas other times it is not that simple. The three most common types of narrators are the first-, second- and third-person narrator.

First-person narrator

The first-person narrator can be identified by the use of personal pronouns such as I, we and me, suggesting that the text is narrated from a character's, often rather subjective, point of view and perspective. This is a quick way of establishing ² sympathy and understanding for a protagonist. If the reader has direct access ³ to the thoughts behind a character's every move, it is hard to be completely unsympathetic to the character. There are, however, cases in which even a total access to the character's mind does not produce a sympathetic character. This is for instance the case in Bret Easton Ellis novel American Psycho (1991), where one rarely feels sympathy for the murderous and shallow ⁴ protagonist, Patrick Bateman.

Second-person narrator

Third-person narrator

The third-person narrator makes use of pronouns in third-person such as he, she and even it in rare cases. Depending on the point of view, the use of a third-person narrator can, like the use of a first-person narrator, be quite effective in creating sympathy and establishing an emotional ⁶ bond between reader and character. Still, there might be an element of distance in the fact that the narrator is often not present in the text, as indicated by the use of third-person pronouns, but instead observing the text from the outside.

Limited or omniscient

The first-person narrator usually one has access to his or her own thoughts, but very often a third-person narrator will have access to other character's thoughts as well. If the third-person narrator can jump back and forth between all of the character in a text, the narrator is refered to as a third-person omniscient ⁷ narrator. If this access is limited to only one or two characters, the narrator will be refered to as a third-person limited ⁸ narrator.

DISTANCE AND NARRATORS

Introduction

Analysing the plot and structure of a text can be a difficult task. A lot of authors have succesfully altered ¹ and experimented with the traditional conventions ² of storytelling in order to excite and surprise the readers. milestones ³ in experimental storytelling include James Joyce 's Ulysses (1922) and other modernist heavyweights ⁴ such as Ezra Pound , T.S. Eliot and Virginia Woolf . From an analytical point of view, the narratives ⁵ of fiction can, rather boldly ⁶, be divided into two; those that are linear and those that are not.

Linear narrative

A linear narrative places its events ⁷ in what is also commonly known as a chronological order. The events and sequences of the text move forward, in a linear manner ⁸, from A to B. This narrative form is quite common in shorter pieces of fiction, whereas it is more unusual for novels to maintain ⁹ a strictly linear narrative through the entire course of the story.

Complex narrative

It can seem a bit drastic to characterise an otherwise mostly linear narrative, perhaps with the exception of a few flashbacks , as a complex ¹⁰ narrative, yet as soon as a text employ ¹¹ flashbacks, it can no longer be defined as linear.The complex narrative therefore has to contain ¹² both the seemingly linear narrative with few flashbacks or flash-forward , but also the completely experimental, non-linear or even a backwards narrative structure.

Circular narrative

The circular ¹³ narrative refers to a narrative structure in which the plot returns to the beginning or a sense of status quo ¹⁴ is achieved at the end. This notion ¹⁵ exists in a lot of different variations ranging ¹⁶ from children's fairytales to horror fiction.

Another example from popular culture, is crime fiction that often sees the murderer, nemesis ¹⁸ or prime suspect escape at the end, thus leaving room for yet another instalment ¹⁹ and repetition ²⁰ of the story.

Freytag's Pyramid

Freytag's Pyramid exists in a lot of different variations depending on the genre to which it is applied. The German playwright Gustav Freytag first designed the model for the tragedy genre, which explains why it did not originally end in resolution, but rather catastrophe ²¹ as exemplified by the suicide of Romeo and Juliet (1594-1596) or the revelation ²² of Oedipus Rex (429 BC).

Introduction

The theme is defined as the greater motive, underlying meaning or idea of a text. It usually deals with universal emotions or conflicts and the theme itself is rarely mentioned directly in the text. Instead, the reader will have to read between the lines in order to uncover ¹ the idea.

Growing up

Many works of fiction follow the transition ² of the protagonist ³ from childhood through adolescence ⁴ and sometimes into early adulthood. J.D. Salinger 's Catcher in the Rye (1951), Stephen Chbosky 's The Perks of Being a Wallflower (1999), J.K. Rowling 's Harry Potter (1997-2007) and André Aciman 's Call Me by Your Name (2007) all examine this particular transition. Works of fiction that deal with the notion ⁵ of growing up, often also explore other related themes such as friendship, sexuality, identity, alienation ⁶, loss of innocence and love. The theme of growing up is also commonly refered to as coming-of-age.

Love

Love is a subject that never ceases ⁷ to inspire writers and it has been the subject of novels for centuries ⁸. Love is the catalyst ⁹ of classics such as William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet (1594-1596), Emily Brönte 's Wuthering Heights (1847) and Jane Austen 's Pride and Prejudice (1813) but it is also the stuff of acclaimed ¹⁰ modern novels such as Sally Rooney 's Normal People (2018).

Good vs. Evil

The notion of good and evil is exemplified in almost every religion, philosophy, ideology and culture across the world. Especially works of fiction within the fantasy, fairytale and science fiction genres, have based countless narratives ¹¹ upon this idea. Literary milestones ¹² such as J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings (1954-1955) and C.S. Lewis ' The Chronicles of Narnia (1950-1956) portray this battle explicitly, whereas other works, such as Joseph Conrad 's Heart of Darkness (1902), deal with the theme as an inner battle or conflict between good and evil.

Power

Power and its corrupt ¹³ nature is another theme that great authors have dwelled ¹⁴ upon for centuries. George Orwell 's Animal Farm (1945) and William Shakespeare's Macbeth (1606) are both prominent examples of this.

Introduction

Words are anyone's to use, but yet the style of a writer is strangely unique. In fact, the renowned American writer, journalist and adventurer, Ernest Hemingway 's minimalistic, short prose ¹ was so characteristic and unmistakable that he even did commercials just in writing. The term writing style refers to a number of different aspects of writing such as diction, tone, rhythm, vocabulary, syntax and figurative language.

Dialogues and descriptions

The use of dialogue ² is a powerful assets ³, but also an important plot- device ⁴ in developing ⁵ realistic and engaging ⁶ characters, whilst allowing the writer certain stylistic liberties ⁷. The Irish poet and playwright, Oscar Wilde , often made use of dialogue for his characters to exhibit ⁸ the ironic and satirical ⁹ style of humour that became his trademark ¹⁰.

It is hard to set the stage without the use of descriptions ¹¹, but on the other hand, characters and interrelationship ¹² often lack definition ¹³ without the use of dialogues. In theory, there should be a balance between the amount of space that dialogues and descriptions take up respectively ¹⁴.

Yet, Hemingway has crafted enticing ¹⁵ works of fiction that are almost entirely dialogue-driven and the dystopian masterpiece Nineteeen Eighty-Four (1949) by George Orwell contains page after page filled with descriptions. In conclusion, rules are made to be broken.

Descriptions are effective in setting the scene, however it does not always consist of picturesque ¹⁶ descriptions of the physical surroundings ¹⁷. American poet and writer, Sylvia Plath makes great use of passages describing the thought process of the protagonist, Esther, in her novel The Bell Jar (1963). This access ¹⁸ to the protagonist's mind helps to develop the character, while the word choices and especially Adjectives such as demoralizing, only, small and lonely, establishes an atmosphere of loneliness and alienation ¹⁹.

Local colour

A lot of fiction have been preoccupied ²⁰ with the local character ²¹ and conflicts of a certain area, causing characteristics such as customs ²², traditions and dialects to creep ²³ into the work and exemplify a unique style. An example of this is A Confederacy of Dunces (1980) by John Kennedy Toole . Sometimes these characeristics are not defined by a geographical area, but rather by a certain group of people leading to terms such as sociolects, slang and argot.

Introduction

An analysis of the title is often something that you will need to consider whether contributes ¹ to your analysis or is merely ² stating the obvious. A lot of texts are for instance named after their main character, the titular ³ character, and while it provides an indication of who is important in the text, there is seldom ⁴ much to say on such titles. On the contrary, the title might be the very thing that binds everything together and provides the key to the interpretation ⁵.

Titular characters

William Shakespeare is only one in a series of renowned ⁶ writers that would name or refer to characters in the titles of his works. Shakespeare named or refered to the protagonist in the title of all his tragedies and historical plays, whereas his comedies mostly featured more explicit ⁷ titles. Other well-known examples include J.K. Rowling 's Harry Potter (1997-2007), Charlotte Brönte 's Jane Eyre , Bram Stoker 's Dracula (1897) and Charles Dickens ' Oliver Twist (1845).

Symbolic titles

Often, titles which do not reference a titular or protagonistic character of sorts, tend to feature more abstract and symbolical titles. These titles often suggest or hint at ways of interpreting the text. Harper Lee originally intended to name To Kill a Mockingbird (1960) after the most prominent character, Atticus Finch, but later opted ⁸ for the famous title. The title is referenced only once in the book, and in a literal sense, but it seems that there is a deeper meaning between the lines.

Introduction

Symbolism is perhaps the single most powerful tool in adding depth ¹, significance ² and weight ³ to an object, situation, concept or character. It permits ⁴ the writer to emphasise ⁵ and add subtle ⁶ meaning to specific words or symbols within the text. A meaning that might only be discovered or understood by the chosen few. A lot of symbols and their representation ⁷ are, however, archetypal ⁸ and often even rehashed ⁹ ideas, which makes it easier for the avid ¹⁰ reader to spot the symbols.

Symbols

This is easier said than done, as symbols can be hard to spot and decipher ¹¹. Furthermore, they do not always work outside the context of the text. There are, however, also a great deal of symbols, often derived from matters such as history, war and religion, where most readers have become almost accustomed ¹² to the symbolic value. Examples of these symbols are hearts, red roses, white doves, apples and so on. It is important to note that the interpretation of symbols is, at least to some degree, based on the cultural background of the receiver. An elephant is a symbol of power, luck and wisdom, but in some Asian cultures it also represents an inconvenience ¹³ and a financial burden ¹⁴.

Metaphors & Similes

Metaphors and symbols are both central literary concepts, and it can be hard to distinguish ¹⁵ between the two. Metaphors act as comparisons between unrelated ¹⁶ ideas, as exemplified by playwright and poet, William Shakespeare 's quote, all the world's a stage and all the men and women merely players. The world is obviously not a stage, yet the metaphor is engaging ¹⁷. A closely, related term is the simile. A simile conveys ¹⁸ a direct comparison by using the words like and as. In his controversial novel Lolita (1955), Vladimir Nabokov poses ¹⁹ a string of similes:

Introduction

In written assignments it is quite uncommon ¹ to draw parallels, unless it is in the form of a discussion at the end. It is, however, quite typical to end an oral ² presentation or exam by drawing parallels and placing the text or subject in a wider context ³.

Other works

During the oral exam, it is mandatory ⁴ to draw parallels to other texts that have been discussed and analysed in class. The text analysed at the exam is unknown ⁵ to the reader, but it is thematically related to a course that has been examined in class. Examples of courses are e.g. Australia, Serial Killers or Hip Hop. These courses all have different focal points and most introduce new terms and technical language. Drawing parallels to such courses therefore consist of accounting ⁶ for the texts, terms and focal points ⁷ of the course.

The real world

There is a good chance, that the work of fiction analysed is inspired by or share themes and events with those of the real world. An example is found in Kathryn Stockett 's The Help , which even though the story is fictional, is placed within a real world context. This provides the reader an opportunity to draw parallels to American history and even modern events such as the Black Lives Matter movement.

Literary criticism

Another way of placing the text in a wider context or putting another spin ⁸ on it, is changing or combining this analysis method, new criticism, with other forms of literary criticism such as historical criticism. This can provide for different interpretations of the text but can also be very useful in drawing parallels. There are several incidents of historical or personal contexts sneaking into literature, but prominent ⁹ examples are J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings (1954-1955) and C.S. Lewis ' The Chronicles of Narnia (1950-1956) that were both, partially ¹⁰, written in England during World War II, and therefore it is likely to believe that the historical context of the war influenced ¹¹ the stories.